Humiliation and perceived power loss as drivers of radicalisation vulnerability in Northwestern Europe

Abstract

This study explores the relationships between humiliation, perceived power loss, discrimination, and vulnerability to radicalisation across Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, and the United Kingdom. Analysing survey data from 5,501 respondents, we developed a measure of radicalisation vulnerability that captures both general vulnerability factors and specific ideological orientations. Muslims and ethnic minorities were marginally more likely to experience humiliation than ethnic majorities, though this relationship varied by national context. A strong positive association was found between perceived ethnic power loss and radicalisation vulnerability, with higher perceived power loss linked to increased vulnerability. While humiliation positively correlated with discrimination, our analysis distinguished between discrete discrimination experiences and broader perceptions of ethnic power loss, suggesting distinct pathways to radicalisation vulnerability. Notably, humiliation mediated the relationship between Muslim or foreign-born status and radicalisation vulnerability, suggesting that addressing humiliation may be more effective than targeting specific demographic groups or ideologies. Cross-national comparisons revealed significant differences in radicalisation vulnerability, with the Netherlands showing the highest mean score and Denmark the lowest. These findings highlight the role of the national context in radicalisation processes and emphasise the need for culturally informed, holistic prevention strategies that address underlying psychological and social factors, particularly humiliation and perceived power loss.